Lihat sumber Garis waktu kimia

[[Berkas:A New System of Chemical Philosophy fp.jpg|jmpl|Sebuah gambar dari ''Sistem Filosofi Kimia Baru'' (''A New System of Chemical Philosophy'') [[John Dalton]], penjelasan modern pertama tentang [[teori atom]].]]
'''Lini masa kimia''' memuat daftar karya, penemuan, gagasan, penciptaan, dan eksperimen penting yang secara signifikan mengubah pemahaman manusia tentang sains modern yang dikenal sebagai [[kimia]], yang didefinisikan sebagai studi ilmiah tentang komposisi materi dan interaksinya. [[Sejarah kimia]] dalam bentuk modernnya bisa dikatakan dimulai dari ilmuwan Irlandia [[Robert Boyle]], meskipun akarnya dapat ditelusuri kembali ke catatan sejarah paling awal.

Gagasan awal yang kemudian tergabung dalam ilmu kimia modern berasal dari dua sumber utama. [[Filsafat alam|Filsuf alam]] (seperti [[Aristoteles]] dan [[Demokritos]]) menggunakan [[Metode deduksi|penalaran deduktif]] dalam upaya untuk menjelaskan perilaku dunia di sekitar mereka. [[Alkimia]]wan (seperti [[Jabir bin Hayyan|Jabir]] dan [[Muhammad bin Zakariya ar-Razi|ar-Razi]]) adalah orang-orang yang menggunakan teknik eksperimental dalam upaya memperpanjang umur atau melakukan konversi materi, seperti mengubah logam dasar menjadi emas.

Pada abad ke-17, sintesis gagasan kedua disiplin ini, yaitu ''deduktif'' dan ''eksperimental'', mengarah pada pengembangan proses berpikir yang dikenal sebagai [[metode ilmiah]]. Dengan diperkenalkannya metode ilmiah, lahirlah ilmu kimia modern.

Dikenal sebagai "{{ill|sains pusat|en|The central science}}", studi kimia sangat dipengaruhi oleh, dan memberi pengaruh kuat pada, banyak bidang ilmiah dan teknologi lainnya. Banyak peristiwa yang dianggap penting bagi pemahaman modern kita tentang kimia juga dianggap sebagai penemuan kunci di bidang, antara lain, fisika, biologi, astronomi, geologi, dan ilmu bahan.<ref>{{cite web | title = Chemistry – The Central Science | work = The Chemistry Hall of Fame | publisher = York University | url = http://www.chem.yorku.ca/hall_of_fame/whychem.htm | accessdate = 2006-09-12 | archive-date = 2006-08-28 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060828042237/http://www.chem.yorku.ca/hall_of_fame/whychem.htm | dead-url = no }}</ref>

== Pra abad ke-17 ==
[[Berkas:Aristoteles Louvre.jpg|jmpl|ka|lurus|[[Aristoteles]] (384–322 SM)]]
[[Berkas:Zosimosapparat.jpg|jmpl|ka| Alembik, kurkubit dan retot, alat alkimia [[Zosimos dari Panopolis|Zosimus]] c. 300, dari [[Marcellin Berthelot]], ''Collection des anciens alchimistes grecs'' (3 vol., Paris, 1887–88)]]
[[Berkas:Geber.jpg|jmpl|ka|lurus|[[Abu Musa Jabir bin Hayyan|Jabir bin Hayyan]] (wafat tahun 815) dianggap oleh beberapa orang sebagai "bapak ilmu kimia".]]

Sebelum menerima [[metode ilmiah]] dan penerapannya pada bidang kimia, agak kontroversial untuk mempertimbangkan banyak orang yang tercantum di bawah ini sebagai "kimiawan" dalam pengertian modern. Namun, gagasan pemikir besar tertentu, baik untuk nurani mereka, atau untuk penerimaan luas dan jangka panjangnya, tercantum di sini.
;c. 3000 SM: [[Bangsa Mesir]] merumuskan teori {{Ill|Ogdoad|en|Ogdoad (Egyptian)}}, atau "gaya primordial", asal semuanya terbentuk. Inilah unsur [[Khaos (kosmogoni)|khaos]], berjumlah delapan, yang ada sebelum penciptaan matahari.<ref name="Griffith">{{cite journal |last=Griffiths |first=J. Gwyn |year=1955 |title=The Orders of Gods in Greece and Egypt (According to Herodotus) |journal=The Journal of Hellenic Studies |volume=75 |pages=21–23 |doi=10.2307/629164 |jstor=629164 |publisher=The Society for the Promotion of Hellenic Studies }}</ref>

;c. 1200 SM: [[Tapputi|Tapputi-Belatikallim]], pembuat parfum dan kimiawan awal, disebutkan dalam [[kuneiform]] di [[Mesopotamia]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Giese |first=Patsy Ann |title=Women in Science: 5000 Years of Obstacles and Achievements |publisher=SHiPS Resource Center for Sociology, History and Philosophy in Science Teaching |url=http://www1.umn.edu/ships/gender/giese.htm |accessdate=2007-03-11 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20061213192315/http://www1.umn.edu/ships/gender/giese.htm |archivedate=2006-12-13 |df= }}</ref>

;c. 450 SM: [[Empedokles]] menegaskan bahwa segala sesuatu terdiri dari empat [[Unsur kimia|unsur]] utama: tanah, udara, api, dan air, di mana dua [[Gaya (fisika)|gaya]] aktif dan bertentangan, cinta dan kebencian, atau afinitas dan antipati, bertindak berdasarkan unsur-unsur ini, menggabungkan dan memisahkannya menjadi bentuk yang bervariasi.<ref>{{cite web |last=Parry |first=Richard |title=Empedocles |work=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, CSLI, Stanford University |date=2005-03-04 |url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/empedocles/ |accessdate=2007-03-11 |archive-date=2012-05-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120513201301/http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/empedocles/ |dead-url=no }}</ref>

;c. 440 SM: [[Leukippos]] dan [[Demokritos]] mengemukakan gagasan atom, sebuah partikel yang tak terbantahkan bahwa semua materi terbuat darinya. Gagasan ini sebagian besar ditolak oleh para filsuf alam yang mendukung pandangan Aristoteles (lihat di bawah).<ref>{{cite web |last=Berryman |first=Sylvia |title=Leucippus |work=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, CSLI, Stanford University |date=2004-08-14 |url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/leucippus/ |accessdate=2007-03-11 |archive-date=2012-05-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120513192223/http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/leucippus/ |dead-url=no }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Berryman |first=Sylvia |title=Democritus |work=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, CSLI, Stanford University |date=2004-08-15 |url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/democritus/ |accessdate=2007-03-11 |archive-date=2006-08-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060830030642/http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/democritus/ |dead-url=no }}</ref>

;c. 360 SM: [[Plato]] mengaitkan istilah '[[Elemen klasik|unsur]]' (''stoicheia'') dan dalam dialognya [[Timaios (dialog)|Timaios]], yang mencakup diskusi tentang komposisi badan anorganik dan organik dan merupakan risalah dasar kimia, mengasumsikan bahwa partikel kecil dari setiap unsur memiliki bentuk geometris khusus: [[tetrahedron]] (api), [[oktahedron]] (udara), [[ikosahedron]] (air), dan [[kubus]] (tanah).<ref>{{cite web|last=Hillar |first=Marian |year=2004 |url=http://www.socinian.org/aristotles_de_anima.html |title=The Problem of the Soul in Aristotle's De anima |publisher=NASA WMAP |accessdate=2006-08-10 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060909004214/http://www.socinian.org/aristotles_de_anima.html |archivedate=2006-09-09 |df= }}</ref>

;c. 350 SM: [[Aristoteles]], mengembangkan teori Empedocles, mengusulkan gagasan tentang zat sebagai kombinasi ''materi'' dan ''bentuk''. Menjelaskan teori [[Elemen klasik|Lima Unsur]], api, air, tanah, udara, dan ether. Teori ini sebagian besar diterima di seluruh dunia barat selama lebih dari 1000 tahun.<ref>{{cite web | title = HISTORY/CHRONOLOGY OF THE ELEMENTS | url = http://hilltop.bradley.edu/~rbg/el.html | accessdate = 2007-03-12 | archive-date = 2016-03-03 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160303205807/http://hilltop.bradley.edu/~rbg/el.html | dead-url = no }}</ref>

; c. 50 SM: [[Lucretius]] menerbitkan [[De rerum natura|''De Rerum Natura'']], sebuah deskripsi puitis tentang gagasan [[atomisme]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Sedley |first=David |title=Lucretius |work=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, CSLI, Stanford University |date=2004-08-04 |url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/lucretius/ |accessdate=2007-03-11 |archive-date=2008-08-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080827193045/http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/lucretius/ |dead-url=no }}</ref>

;c. 300: [[Zosimos dari Panopolis]] menulis beberapa buku tertua tentang [[alkimia]], yang dia definisikan sebagai studi tentang komposisi air, gerak, pertumbuhan, penjelmaan dan pengawajelmaan, menarik roh dari tubuh dan mengikat roh di dalam tubuh.<ref name=Mdream>{{cite book |last=Strathern |first=Paul |title=Mendeleyev's Dream – The Quest for the Elements |publisher=Berkley Books |year=2000 |isbn=0-425-18467-6}}</ref>

;c. 770: [[Abu Musa Jabir bin Hayyan]] (alias Geber), seorang [[Alkimia dan kimia pada zaman Islam pertengahan|alkimiawan Arab/Persia]] yang "dianggap oleh banyak orang sebagai bapak ilmu kimia",<ref>{{citation |first=Zygmunt S. |last=Derewenda |year=2007 |title=On wine, chirality and crystallography |journal=Acta Crystallographica Section A |volume=64 |pages=246–258 [247] |doi=10.1107/S0108767307054293 |pmid=18156689 |bibcode=2008AcCrA..64..246D }}</ref><ref>John Warren (2005). "War and the Cultural Heritage of Iraq: a sadly mismanaged affair", ''Third World Quarterly'', Volume 26, Issue 4 & 5, p. 815-830.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unhas.ac.id/~rhiza/saintis/haiyan.html|title=JABIR IBN HAIYAN (Geber)|last=Zahoor|first=Dr. A.|date=|year=1997|website=|publisher=[[University of Indonesia]]|archivedate=2008-06-30|accessdate=|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080630061235/http://www.unhas.ac.id/~rhiza/saintis/haiyan.html}}</ref> mengembangkan [[Metode ilmiah|metode eksperimental]] awal untuk kimia, dan mengisolasi banyak [[asam]], termasuk [[asam klorida]], [[asam nitrat]], [[asam sitrat]], [[asam asetat]], [[asam tartarat]], dan [[air raja]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Father of Chemistry: Jabir Ibn Haiyan |work=Famous Muslism |publisher=Famousmuslims.com |year=2003 |url=http://www.famousmuslims.com/Jabir%20Ibn%20Haiyan.htm |accessdate=2007-03-12 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070405151922/https://famousmuslims.com/Jabir%20Ibn%20Haiyan.htm |archivedate=2007-04-05 |df= }}</ref>

;c. 1000: '''[[Al-Biruni|Abu Raihan Al-Biruni]]'''<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Marmura |first1=Michael E. |year=1965 |title=''An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines. Conceptions of Nature and Methods Used for Its Study by the Ikhwan Al-Safa'an, Al-Biruni, and Ibn Sina'' by Seyyed [[Hossein Nasr]] |url= |journal=Speculum |volume=40 |issue=4 |pages=744–746 |doi=10.2307/2851429}}</ref> dan [[Ibnu Sina]],<ref>[[Robert Briffault]] (1938). ''The Making of Humanity'', p. 196-197.</ref> keduanya [[Alkimia dan kimia pada zaman Islam pertengahan|kimiawan Persia]], membantah praktik [[alkimia]] dan teori [[Batu filsuf|transmutasi logam]].

;c. 1167: [[Magister Salernus]] dari [[Schola Medica Salernitana]] membuat referensi pertama tentang penyulingan anggur.<ref name="Forbes1970">{{cite book |last=Forbes |first=Robert James |title=A short history of the art of distillation: from the beginnings up to the death of Cellier Blumenthal |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XeqWOkKYn28C |accessdate=29 June 2010 |year=1970 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-00617-1 |page=88 |archive-date=2023-01-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230123191201/https://books.google.com/books?id=XeqWOkKYn28C |dead-url=no }}</ref>

;c. 1220: [[Robert Grosseteste]] menerbitkan beberapa komentar Aristoteles di mana dia meletakkan kerangka awal [[metode ilmiah]].<ref>{{Cite CE1913|wstitle=Robert Grosseteste}}</ref>

;c 1250:[[Taddeo Alderotti]] mengembangkan [[distilasi fraksional]], yang jauh lebih efektif daripada pendahulunya.<ref>{{cite book |title=Alchemy |url=https://archive.org/details/alchemy0000holm |last=Holmyard |first=Eric John |year=1990 |publisher=Courier Dover Publications |page=[https://archive.org/details/alchemy0000holm/page/288 288] |isbn=0-486-26298-7 }}</ref>

;c 1260: St [[Albertus Agung]] menemukan [[arsen]]<ref name="BuildingBlocks451-3">{{cite book |last=Emsley |first=John |title=Nature's Building Blocks: An A-Z Guide to the Elements |year=2001 |isbn=0-19-850341-5 |pages=43, 513, 529 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |location=Oxford}}</ref> dan [[perak nitrat]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Davidson |first=Michael W. |others=National High Magnetic Field Laboratory at The Florida State University |title=Molecular Expressions: Science, Optics and You&nbsp;— Timeline&nbsp;— Albertus Magnus |publisher=The Florida State University |date=2003-08-01 |url=http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timeline/people/magnus.html |accessdate=2009-11-28 |archive-date=2010-03-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100330045629/http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timeline/people/magnus.html |dead-url=no }}</ref> Dia juga membuat salah satu referensi pertama untuk [[asam sulfat]].<ref name="Karpenko">Vladimir Karpenko, John A. Norris(2001), [http://www.chemicke-listy.cz/docs/full/2002_12_05.pdf Vitriol in the history of Chemistry] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190214184019/http://www.chemicke-listy.cz/docs/full/2002_12_05.pdf |date=2019-02-14 }}, [[Charles University in Prague|Charles University]]</ref>

;c. 1267: [[Roger Bacon]] menerbitkan ''Opus Maius'', yang antara lain mengusulkan bentuk awal metode ilmiah, dan berisi hasil eksperimennya dengan [[bubuk mesiu]].<ref>{{cite web |last=O'Connor |first=J. J. |last2=Robertson |first2=E. F. |title=Roger Bacon |work=MacTutor |publisher=School of Mathematics and Statistics University of St Andrews, Scotland |year=2003 |url=http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Biographies/Bacon.html |accessdate=2007-03-12 |archive-date=2008-03-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080307150151/http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Biographies/Bacon.html |dead-url=yes }}</ref>

;c. 1310: {{Ill|Jabir Palsu|en|Pseudo-Geber}}, seorang alkimiawan anonim Spanyol yang menulis dengan nama Geber, menerbitkan beberapa buku yang menetapkan teori lama bahwa semua logam terdiri dari berbagai proporsi [[belerang]] dan [[raksa]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Zdravkovski |first=Zoran |last2=Stojanoski |first2=Kiro |title=GEBER |publisher=Institute of Chemistry, Skopje, Macedonia |date=1997-03-09 |url=http://www.pmf.ukim.edu.mk/PMF/Chemistry/chemists/geber.htm |accessdate=2007-03-12 |archive-date=2012-04-22 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/676b9cMGL?url=http://www.pmf.ukim.edu.mk/PMF/Chemistry/chemists/geber.htm |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Dia adalah salah satu yang pertama menjelaskan [[asam nitrat]], [[air raja]], dan [[aqua fortis]].<ref>[http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Alchemy Encyclopædia Britannica 1911, ''Alchemy''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070228121340/http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Alchemy |date=2007-02-28 }}</ref>

;c. 1530: [[Paracelsus]] mengembangkan studi tentang [[Iatrokimia|iatrokimia (''iatrochemistry'')]], sebuah subdisiplin alkimia yang didedikasikan untuk memperpanjang umur, sehingga menjadi akar [[industri farmasi]] modern. Ia juga mengklaim bahwa dia adalah orang pertama yang menggunakan kata "''chemistry''".<ref name=Mdream/>

;1597: [[Andreas Libavius]] mempublikasikan ''Alchemia'', sebuah prototipe buku teks [[kimia]].<ref>{{cite web | title = From liquid to vapor and back: origins | work = Special Collections Department | publisher = University of Delaware Library | url = http://www.lib.udel.edu/ud/spec/exhibits/vapor/origins.htm | accessdate = 2007-03-12 | archive-date = 2018-04-10 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180410210323/http://www.lib.udel.edu/ud/spec/exhibits/vapor/origins.htm | dead-url = no }}</ref>

== Abad ke-17 dan ke-18 ==
;1605
:* [[Francis Bacon|Sir Francis Bacon]] menerbitkan ''The Proficience and Advancement of Learning'', yang berisi deskripsi tentang apa yang kemudian dikenal sebagai [[metode ilmiah]].<ref>{{cite web|last=Asarnow |first=Herman |title=Sir Francis Bacon: Empiricism |work=An Image-Oriented Introduction to Backgrounds for English Renaissance Literature |publisher=University of Portland |date=2005-08-08 |url=http://faculty.up.edu/asarnow/eliz4.htm |accessdate=2007-02-22 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070201210445/http://faculty.up.edu/asarnow/eliz4.htm |archivedate=2007-02-01 |df= }}</ref>
:* [[Michael Sendivogius|Michal Sedziwój]] menerbitkan risalah alkimia ''A New Light of Alchemy'' yang mengusulkan adanya "makanan kehidupan" di dalam udara, yang kemudian dikenal sebagai [[oksigen]].<ref>{{cite web | title = Sedziwój, Michal | work = infopoland: Poland on the Web | publisher = University at Buffalo | url = http://info-poland.buffalo.edu/web/sci_health/science/scientists/sedziwoj/link.shtml | accessdate = 2007-02-22 | archive-date = 2006-09-02 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060902171948/http://info-poland.buffalo.edu/web/sci_health/science/scientists/sedziwoj/link.shtml | dead-url = yes }}</ref>

;1615:[[Jean Beguin]] menerbitkan ''[[Tyrocinium Chymicum]]'', sebuah buku teks kimia awal, dan di dalamnya terdapat [[persamaan kimia]] untuk pertama kalinya.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Crosland |first=M.P. |year=1959 |title=The use of diagrams as chemical 'equations' in the lectures of [[William Cullen]] and [[Joseph Black]] |journal=Annals of Science |volume=15 |issue=2 |pages=75–90 |doi=10.1080/00033795900200088}}</ref>

;1637:[[René Descartes]] menerbitkan ''[[Discourse on the Method|Discours de la méthode]]'', yang berisi garis besar metode ilmiah.<ref>{{Cite CE1913|wstitle= René Descartes}}</ref>

;1648:Publikasi anumerta buku ''Ortus medicina'' oleh [[J.B. van Helmont|Jan Baptist van Helmont]], yang dikutip oleh beberapa orang sebagai karya transisi besar antara alkimia dan kimia, dan memberi pengaruh penting pada Robert Boyle. Buku ini berisi hasil berbagai eksperimen dan menetapkan versi awal [[hukum kekekalan massa]].<ref>{{cite web | title = Johann Baptista van Helmont | work = History of Gas Chemistry | publisher = Center for Microscale Gas Chemistry, Creighton University | date = 2005-09-25 | url = http://mattson.creighton.edu/History_Gas_Chemistry/vanHelmont.html | accessdate = 2007-02-23 | archive-date = 2010-07-24 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100724220818/http://mattson.creighton.edu/History_Gas_Chemistry/vanHelmont.html | dead-url = no }}</ref>

[[Berkas:The Sceptical Chymist.jpg|jmpl|ka|lurus|Halaman judul ''[[The Sceptical Chymist]]'' oleh [[Robert Boyle]] (1627–91)]]
;1661:[[Robert Boyle]] menerbitkan ''[[The Sceptical Chymist]]'', sebuah risalah tentang perbedaan antara kimia dan [[alkimia]]. Ini berisi beberapa gagasan modern awal tentang [[atom]], [[molekul]], dan [[reaksi kimia]], dan menandai dimulainya sejarah kimia modern.<ref name=Boyle>{{cite web | title = Robert Boyle | work = Chemical Achievers: The Human Face of Chemical Sciences | publisher = Chemical Heritage Foundation | year = 2005 }}</ref>

;1662:Robert Boyle mengusulkan [[hukum Boyle]], deskripsi eksperimen tentang perilaku [[gas]], khususnya hubungan antara [[tekanan]] dan [[volume]].<ref name=Boyle/>

;1735:Kimiawan Swedia [[Georg Brandt]] menganalisis pigmen biru tua yang ditemukan di bijih tembaga. Brandt menunjukkan bahwa pigmen tersebut mengandung unsur baru, yang kemudian diberi nama [[kobalt]].<ref>Georg Brandt first showed cobalt to be a new metal in: G. Brandt (1735) "Dissertatio de semimetallis" (Dissertation on semi-metals), ''Acta Literaria et Scientiarum Sveciae'' (Journal of Swedish literature and sciences), vol. 4, pages 1–10.<br />See also: '''(1)''' G. Brandt (1746) "Rön och anmärkningar angäende en synnerlig färg — cobolt" (Observations and remarks concerning an extraordinary pigment — cobalt), ''Kongliga Svenska vetenskapsakademiens handlingar'' (Transactions of the Royal Swedish Academy of Science), vol.7, pages 119–130; '''(2)''' G. Brandt (1748) "Cobalti nova species examinata et descripta" (Cobalt, a new element examined and described), ''Acta Regiae Societatis Scientiarum Upsaliensis'' (Journal of the Royal Scientific Society of Uppsala), 1st series, vol. 3, pages 33–41; '''(3)''' James L. Marshall and Virginia R. Marshall (Spring 2003) [http://www.chem.unt.edu/Rediscovery/Riddarhyttan.pdf "Rediscovery of the Elements: Riddarhyttan, Sweden,"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100703175508/http://www.chem.unt.edu/Rediscovery/Riddarhyttan.pdf |date=2010-07-03 }} ''The Hexagon'' (official journal of the [[Alpha Chi Sigma]] fraternity of chemists), vol. 94, no. 1, pages 3–8.</ref><ref name="Wang">{{cite journal |journal=Journal of the Minerals, Metals and Materials Society |volume=58 |issue=10 |year=2006 |doi=10.1007/s11837-006-0201-y |pages=47–50 |title=Cobalt—Its recovery, recycling, and application |first=Shijie |last=Wang |bibcode=2006JOM....58j..47W }}</ref>

;1754:[[Joseph Black]] mengisolasi [[karbon dioksida]], yang ia sebut "udara tetap".<ref>{{cite web |last=Cooper |first=Alan |title=Joseph Black |work=History of Glasgow University Chemistry Department |publisher=University of Glasgow Department of Chemistry |year=1999 |url=http://www.chem.gla.ac.uk/dept/black.htm |accessdate=2006-02-23 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060410074412/http://www.chem.gla.ac.uk/dept/black.htm <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archivedate=2006-04-10}}</ref>

[[Berkas:Chemielabor des 18. Jahrhunderts, Naturhistorisches Museum Wien.jpg|jmpl|Laboratorium kimia khas abad ke-18]]

;1757:[[Louis Claude Cadet de Gassicourt]], saat menyelidiki senyawa arsen, menciptakan [[cairan berasap Kadet]], yang kemudian ditemukan sebagai [[kakodil oksida]], yang dianggap sebagai senyawa [[organologam]] sintetis pertama.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Cadet's Fuming Arsenical Liquid and the Cacodyl Compounds of Bunsen |first=Dietmar |last=Seyferth |journal=Organometallics |year=2001 |volume=20 |issue=8 |pages=1488–1498 |doi=10.1021/om0101947 |url=http://pubs.acs.org/cgi-bin/abstract.cgi/orgnd7/2001/20/i08/abs/om0101947.html |access-date=2017-09-26 |archive-date=2020-04-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200407023127/http://pubsapp.acs.org/cgi-bin/abstract.cgi/orgnd7/2001/20/i08/abs/om0101947.html |dead-url=no }}</ref>

;1758:Joseph Black merumuskan konsep [[kalor laten]] untuk menjelaskan [[termokimia]] of [[Perubahan wujud zat|perubahan fase]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Partington |first=J.R. |title=A Short History of Chemistry |url=https://archive.org/details/shorthistoryofch0000part_q6h4 |publisher=Dover Publications, Inc |year=1989 |isbn=0-486-65977-1 |authorlink=J. R. Partington}}</ref>

;1766:[[Henry Cavendish]] menemukan [[hidrogen]] sebagai gas yang tak berwarna, tak berbau gas yang dapat terbakar dan dapat membentuk sebuah campuran eksplosif dengan udara.<ref name=pt>{{cite journal |last=Cavendish |first=Henry |title=Three Papers Containing Experiments on Factitious Air, by the Hon. Henry Cavendish |journal=Philosophical Transactions |year=1766 |volume=56 |pages=141–184 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=ygqYnSR3oe0C&printsec=frontcover&dq=the+scientific+papers+cavendish#PPA77,M1 |accessdate=6 November 2007 |doi=10.1098/rstl.1766.0019 |publisher=The University Press}}</ref>

;1773–1774: [[Carl Wilhelm Scheele]] dan [[Joseph Priestley]] seara terpisah mengisolasi oksigen, Priestley menyebutnya "udara terdeflogitikasi", ("''dephlogisticated air''") dan Scheele menyebutnya "udara api" ("''fire air''").<ref>{{cite web | title = Joseph Priestley | work = Chemical Achievers: The Human Face of Chemical Sciences | publisher = Chemical Heritage Foundation | year = 2005 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title = Carl Wilhelm Scheele | work = History of Gas Chemistry | publisher = Center for Microscale Gas Chemistry, Creighton University | date = 2005-09-11 | url = http://mattson.creighton.edu/History_Gas_Chemistry/Scheele.html | accessdate = 2007-02-23 | archive-date = 2020-02-23 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200223220219/http://mattson.creighton.edu/History_Gas_Chemistry/Scheele.html | dead-url = no }}</ref>

[[Berkas:David - Portrait of Monsieur Lavoisier (cropped).jpg|jmpl|ka|lurus|[[Antoine Lavoisier|Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier]] (1743–94) dianggap sebagai "[[Daftar tokoh yang dianggap bapak atau ibu sains|Bapak Kimia Modern]] ".]]

;1778:Antoine Lavoisier, yang dianggap sebagai "bapak kimia modern",<ref>"Lavoisier, Antoine." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 24 July 2007 <http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9369846 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200620125419/http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9369846 |date=2020-06-20 }}>.</ref> mengenali dan memberi nama oksigen, dan menyadari pentingnya dan perannya dalam pembakaran.<ref name=lavoisier>{{cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Lavoisier, Antoine (1743–1794) |work=Eric Weisstein's World of Scientific Biography |publisher=Wolfram Research Products |year=1996 |url=http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/biography/Lavoisier.html |accessdate=2007-02-23 |archive-date=2015-03-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150314182610/http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/access-error/agent-denied.html |dead-url=no }}</ref>

;1787
:* Antoine Lavoisier mempublikasikan ''Méthode de nomenclature chimique'', sistem tata nama kimia modern pertama.<ref name=lavoisier/>
:* [[Jacques Charles]] mengusulkan [[hukum Charles]], melengkapi hukum Boyle, yang menjelaskan hubungan antara [[suhu]] dan volume gas.<ref>{{cite web|title=Jacques Alexandre César Charles |work=Centennial of Flight |publisher=U.S. Centennial of Flight Commission |year=2001 |url=http://www.centennialofflight.gov/essay/Dictionary/Charles/DI16.htm |accessdate=2007-02-23 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070224222637/http://www.centennialofflight.gov/essay/Dictionary/Charles/DI16.htm |archivedate=2007-02-24 |df= }}</ref>

;1789:Antoine Lavoisier menerbitkan ''[[Traité Élémentaire de Chimie]]'', buku teks kimia modern pertama. Ini adalah survei lengkap tentang kimia modern, termasuk definisi ringkas pertama tentang [[hukum kekekalan massa]], dan juga mewakili pendirian disiplin ilmu [[stoikiometri]] atau analisis kimia kuantitatif.<ref name=lavoisier/><ref>{{cite book |last=Burns |first=Ralph A. |title=Fundamentals of Chemistry |url=https://archive.org/details/fundamentalsofch0003burn |publisher=Prentice Hall |year=1999 |page=[https://archive.org/details/fundamentalsofch0003burn/page/32 32] |isbn=0-02-317351-3}}</ref>

;1797:[[Joseph Louis Proust|Joseph Proust]] mengusulkan [[hukum perbandingan tetap]], yang menyatakan bahwa unsur-unsur selalu bergabung dalam rasio bilangan bulat kecil untuk membentuk senyawa.<ref>{{cite web | title = Proust, Joseph Louis (1754–1826) | work = 100 Distinguished Chemists | publisher = European Association for Chemical and Molecular Science | year = 2005 | url = http://www.euchems.org/Distinguished/19thCentury/proustlouis.asp | accessdate = 2007-02-23 | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20080515224050/http://www.euchems.org/Distinguished/19thCentury/proustlouis.asp | archivedate = 2008-05-15}}</ref>

;1800:[[Alessandro Volta]] merancang [[Tumpukan volta|baterai kimia]] pertama, sehingga menemukan disiplin ilmu [[elektrokimia]].<ref>{{cite web | title = Inventor Alessandro Volta Biography | work = The Great Idea Finder | publisher = The Great Idea Finder | year = 2005 | url = http://www.ideafinder.com/history/inventors/volta.htm | accessdate = 2007-02-23 | archive-date = 2010-01-02 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100102131114/http://ideafinder.com/history/inventors/volta.htm | dead-url = no }}</ref>

== Abad ke-19 ==
[[Berkas:Dalton John desk.jpg|jmpl|ka|180px|[[John Dalton]] (1766–1844)]]
;1801:[[John Dalton]] mengusulkan [[hukum Dalton]], yang menjelaskan hubungan antara komponen dalam campuran gas dan tekanan relatif yang masing-masing berkontribusi pada campuran keseluruhan.<ref name=dalton>{{cite web | title = John Dalton | work = Chemical Achievers: The Human Face of Chemical Sciences | publisher = Chemical Heritage Foundation | year = 2005 }}</ref>

;1805:[[Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac]] menemukan bahwa air tersusun atas dua bagian hidrogen dan satu bagian oksigen berdasarkan volume.<ref>{{cite web|title = The Human Face of Chemical Sciences | publisher = Chemical Heritage Foundation | year = 2005 }}</ref>

;1808
:* Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac mengumpulkan dan menemukan beberapa sifat kimia dan fisika udara dan gas lainnya, termasuk bukti eksperimental tentang hukum Boyle dan Charles, dan hubungan antara densitas dan komposisi gas.<ref name=JLGL>{{cite web | title = December 6 Births | work = Today in Science History | publisher = Today in Science History | year = 2007 | url = http://www.todayinsci.com/12/12_06.htm | accessdate = 2007-03-12 | archive-date = 2009-03-16 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090316015247/http://www.todayinsci.com/12/12_06.htm | dead-url = no }}</ref>
:* John Dalton menerbitkan ''New System of Chemical Philosophy'', yang berisi deskripsi ilmiah modern tentang [[teori atom]], dan deskripsi yang jelas tentang [[hukum perbandingan berganda]].<ref name=dalton/>
:* [[Jöns Jakob Berzelius]] mempublikasikan ''Lärbok i Kemien'' yang di dalamnya ia mengusulkan notasi dan [[Simbol (kimia)|simbol kimia]], serta konsep [[massa atom relatif]].<ref>{{cite web | title = Jöns Jakob Berzelius | work = Chemical Achievers: The Human Face of Chemical Sciences | publisher = Chemical Heritage Foundation | year = 2005 }}</ref>

;1811:[[Amedeo Avogadro]] mengusulkan [[hukum Avogadro]], yang menyatakan bahwa untuk volume gas yang sama, di bawah suhu dan tekanan konstan, memiliki jumlah molekul yang sama.<ref>{{cite web | title = Michael Faraday | work = Famous Physicists and Astronomers | url = http://www.phy.hr/~dpaar/fizicari/xfaraday.html | accessdate = 2007-03-12 | archive-date = 2011-11-19 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20111119052155/http://www.phy.hr/~dpaar/fizicari/xfaraday.html | dead-url = no }}</ref>
[[Berkas:Urea Structural Formula V2.svg|jmpl|ka|160px|Rumus struktur [[urea]]]]
;1825:[[Friedrich Wöhler]] dan [[Justus von Liebig]] melakukan penemuan terkonfirmasi dan penjelasan pertama tentang [[isomer]], yang sebelumnya telah diberi nama tersebut oleh Berzelius. Bekerja dengan asam sianat dan asam fulminat, mereka menyimpulkan dengan tepat bahwa isomerisme disebabkan oleh penataan yang berbeda dari atom-atom di dalam sturktur molekul.<ref name=wohlerliebig>{{cite web | title = Justus von Liebig and Friedrich Wöhler  | work = Chemical Achievers: The Human Face of Chemical Sciences | publisher = Chemical Heritage Foundation | year = 2005 }}</ref>

;1827:William Prout mengklasifikasikan biomolekul ke dalam pengelompokan modern sebagai: [[karbohidrat]], [[protein]] dan [[lipida]].<ref name=Prout>{{cite web | title = William Prout | url = http://www.cartage.org.lb/en/themes/Biographies/MainBiographies/P/Prout/1.html | accessdate = 2007-03-12 | deadurl = yes | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20070926215538/http://www.cartage.org.lb/en/themes/Biographies/MainBiographies/P/Prout/1.html | archivedate = 2007-09-26 | df =  }}</ref>

;1828:Friedrich Wöhler mensintesis [[urea]], sehingga memantapkan bahwa senyawa organik dapat dibuat dari bahan mentah anoragnik, menyanggah teori [[vitalisme]].<ref name=wohlerliebig/>

;1832:Friedrich Wöhler dan Justus von Liebig menemukan dan menjelaskan [[gugus fungsional]] dan [[Radikal bebas|radikal]] dalam hubungannya dengan kimia organik.<ref name=wohlerliebig/>

;1840:[[Germain Henry Hess|Germain Hess]] mengusulkan [[hukum Hess]], sebuah pernyataan awal tentang [[hukum kekekalan energi]], yang menetapkan bahwa perubahan energi dalam proses kimia hanya bergantung pada keadaan bahan awal dan produk dan bukan pada jalur spesifik yang diambil antara kedua keadaan tersebut.<ref>{{cite web|title=Hess, Germain Henri |url=http://www.cartage.org.lb/en/themes/Biographies/MainBiographies/H/Hess/1.html |accessdate=2007-03-12 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070209062053/http://www.cartage.org.lb/en/themes/Biographies/MainBiographies/H/Hess/1.html |archivedate=2007-02-09 |df= }}</ref>

;1847:[[Hermann Kolbe]] memperoleh [[asam asetat]] dari sumber yang sepenuhnya anorganik, sanggahan lebih lanjut terhadap vitalisme.<ref>{{cite web | title = Kolbe, Adolph Wilhelm Hermann | publisher = European Association for Chemical and Molecular Sciences | work = 100 Distinguished European Chemists | year = 2005 | url = http://www.euchems.org/Distinguished/19thCentury/kolbeadolph.asp | accessdate = 2007-03-12 | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20081011092124/http://www.euchems.org/Distinguished/19thCentury/kolbeadolph.asp | archivedate = 2008-10-11}}</ref>

;1848:[[Lord Kelvin]] menetapkan konsep [[nol mutlak]], suhu di mana seluruh gerak molekul terhenti.<ref>{{cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Kelvin, Lord William Thomson (1824–1907) |work=Eric Weisstein's World of Scientific Biography |publisher=Wolfram Research Products |year=1996 |url=http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/biography/Kelvin.html |accessdate=2007-03-12 |archive-date=2013-01-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130125134412/http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/biography/Kelvin.html |dead-url=no }}</ref>

;1849:[[Louis Pasteur]] menemukan bahwa bentuk [[Campuran rasemat|rasemat]] dari [[asam tartarat]] adalah suatu campuran dari bentuk levorotatori dan dekstrotatori, dengan demikian mengklarifikasi sifat [[rotasi optik]] dan memajukan bidang [[stereokimia]].<ref>{{cite web | title = History of Chirality | publisher = Stheno Corporation | year = 2006 | url = http://www.sthenocorp.com/history.htm | accessdate = 2007-03-12 |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20070307222010/http://www.sthenocorp.com/history.htm <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archivedate = 2007-03-07}}</ref>

;1852:[[August Beer]] mengusulkan [[Hukum Beer-Lambert|hukum Beer]], yang menjelaskan hubungan antara komposisi campuran dan jumlah cahaya yang akan diserapnya. Berdasarkan sebagian dari karya sebelumnya oleh [[Pierre Bouguer]] dan [[Johann Heinrich Lambert]], ia menetapkan teknik [[Kimia analisis|analisis]] yang dikenal sebagai [[spektrofotometri]].<ref>{{cite web | title = Lambert-Beer Law | publisher = Sigrist-Photometer AG | date = 2007-03-07 | url = http://www.photometer.com/en/abc/abc_061.htm | accessdate = 2007-03-12 | archive-date = 2007-09-29 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070929145238/http://www.photometer.com/en/abc/abc_061.htm | dead-url = no }}</ref>

;1855: [[Benjamin Silliman, Jr.]] merintis metode [[perengkahan minyak bumi]], yang memungkinkan terjadinya industri [[petrokimia]] modern.<ref>{{cite web|title=Benjamin Silliman, Jr. (1816–1885) |work=Picture History |publisher=Picture History LLC |year=2003 |url=http://www.picturehistory.com/find/p/17879/mcms.html |accessdate=2007-03-24 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070707023346/http://www.picturehistory.com/find/p/17879/mcms.html |archivedate=2007-07-07 |df= }}</ref>

;1856:[[William Henry Perkin]] mensintesis [[mauveina]], pewarna sintetis pertama. Dibuat sebagai produk sampingan yang tidak disengaja untuk menciptakan [[kuinina]] dari [[tar batubara]]. Penemuan ini merupakan dasar industri sintesis zat warna, salah satu industri kimia yang berhasil paling awal.<ref>{{cite web | title = William Henry Perkin  | work = Chemical Achievers: The Human Face of Chemical Sciences | publisher = Chemical Heritage Foundation | year = 2005 }}</ref>

;1857:[[Friedrich August Kekulé von Stradonitz]] mengusulkan bahwa [[karbon]] adalah tetravalen, atau membentuk tepat empat [[ikatan kimia]].<ref name=kekule>{{cite web | title = Archibald Scott Couper and August Kekulé von Stradonitz | work = Chemical Achievers: The Human Face of Chemical Sciences | publisher = Chemical Heritage Foundation | year = 2005 }}</ref>

;1859–1860: [[Gustav Kirchhoff]] dan [[Robert Bunsen]] meletakkan landasan [[spektroskopi]] sebagai alat analisis kimias, yang mengarahkan mereka pada penemuan [[sesium]] dan [[rubidium]]. Peneliti lain segera menggunakan teknik yang sama untuk menemukan [[indium]], [[talium]], dan [[helium]].<ref>{{cite web |last=O'Connor |first=J. J. |last2=Robertson |first2=E.F. |title=Gustav Robert Kirchhoff |work=MacTutor |publisher=School of Mathematics and Statistics University of St Andrews, Scotland |year=2002 |url=http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Biographies/Kirchhoff.html |accessdate=2007-03-24 |archive-date=2010-07-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100707112204/http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Biographies/Kirchhoff.html |dead-url=yes }}</ref>

;1860:[[Stanislao Cannizzaro]], membangkitkan gagasan Avogadro mengenai molekul diatomik, menyusun sebuah tabel berdasarkan [[berat atom]] dan menyajikannya pada [[Kongres Karlsruhe]] tahun 1860, yang mengakhiri konflik puluhan tahun antara berat atom dan rumus molekul, dan mengarahkan Mendeleev menemukan hukum periodik.<ref>Eric R. Scerri, ''The Periodic Table: Its Story and Its Significance'', Oxford University Press, 2006.</ref>

;1862
:* [[Alexander Parkes]] memamerkan [[Parkesine]], salah satu [[polimer sintetis]] paling awal, di Pameran Internasional di London. Penemuan ini merupakan landasan [[industri plastik]] modern.<ref>{{cite web | title = Alexander Parkes (1813–1890) | work = People & Polymers | publisher = Plastics Historical Society | url = http://www.plastiquarian.com/parkes.htm | accessdate = 2007-03-24 |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20070315102347/http://www.plastiquarian.com/parkes.htm <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archivedate = 2007-03-15}}</ref>
:* [[Alexandre-Émile Béguyer de Chancourtois|Alexandre-Emile Béguyer de Chancourtois]] menerbitkan heliks telurik, sebuah versi tiga dimensi [[Tabel periodik|tabel periodik unsur kimia]].<ref name=periodic>{{cite web | title = The Periodic Table | publisher = The Third Millennium Online | url = http://www.3rd1000.com/history/periodic.htm | accessdate = 2007-03-24 | archive-date = 2010-01-03 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100103222556/http://3rd1000.com/history/periodic.htm | dead-url = yes }}</ref>

;1864
:* [[John Alexander Reina Newlands|John Newlands]] mengusulkan hukum oktaf, pendahulu dari [[hukum periodik]].<ref name=periodic/>
:* [[Julius Lothar Meyer|Lothar Meyer]] mengembangkan versi awal tabel periodik, dengan 28 unsur yang diatur berdasarkan [[valensi]].<ref name=meyermendeleev>{{cite web | title = Julius Lothar Meyer and Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev  | work = Chemical Achievers: The Human Face of Chemical Sciences | publisher = Chemical Heritage Foundation | year = 2005 }}</ref>
:* [[Cato Maximilian Guldberg]] dan [[Peter Waage]], yang membangun berdasarkan gagasan [[Claude Louis Berthollet]], mengusulkan [[hukum aksi massa]].<ref name="GW1">C.M. Guldberg and P. Waage,"Studies Concerning Affinity" ''C. M. Forhandlinger: Videnskabs-Selskabet i Christiana'' (1864), 35</ref><ref name="GW2">P. Waage, "Experiments for Determining the Affinity Law",''Forhandlinger i Videnskabs-Selskabet i Christiania'', (1864) 92.</ref><ref name="GW3">C.M. Guldberg, "Concerning the Laws of Chemical Affinity", ''C. M. Forhandlinger i Videnskabs-Selskabet i Christiania'' (1864) 111</ref>

;1865
:* [[Johann Josef Loschmidt]] menentukan jumlah molekul yang tepat dalam satu [[mol]], yang kemudian dinamakan [[bilangan Avogadro]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.uh.edu/engines/epi1858.htm|title=No. 1858: Johann Josef Loschmidt|website=www.uh.edu|access-date=2016-10-09|archive-date=2017-01-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170101053332/http://www.uh.edu/engines/epi1858.htm|dead-url=no}}</ref>
:* Friedrich August Kekulé von Stradonitz, yang sebagian berdasarkan pada karya Loschmidt dan lainnya, membentuk struktur benzena sebagai enam cincin karbon dengan ikatan berselang-seling [[Ikatan tunggal|tunggal]] dan [[Ikatan ganda|ganda]].<ref name=kekule/>
:* [[Johann Friedrich Wilhelm Adolf von Baeyer|Adolf von Baeyer]] mulai mengerjakan [[pewarna indigo]], sebuah tonggak sejarah dalam industri kimia organik modern yang merevolusi industri zat warna.<ref>{{cite web | title = Adolf von Baeyer: The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1905 | work = Nobel Lectures, Chemistry 1901–1921 | publisher = Elsevier Publishing Company | year = 1966 | url = http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1905/baeyer-bio.html | accessdate = 2007-02-28 | archive-date = 2009-09-20 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090920204622/http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1905/baeyer-bio.html | dead-url = no }}</ref>
[[Berkas:Mendeleev's 1869 periodic table.png|jmpl|ka|[[Tabel periodik]] [[Dmitri Mendeleev|Mendeleev]] 1869]]
;1869:[[Dmitri Mendeleev]] menerbitkan tabel periodik modern pertama, dengan 66 unsur yang diketahui saat itu dan diatur menurut berat atom. Kekuatan tabelnya adalah kemampuannya untuk secara akurat memprediksi sifat unsur yang belum diketahui.<ref name=periodic/><ref name=meyermendeleev/>

;1873:[[Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff]] dan [[Joseph Achille Le Bel]], yang bekerja secara terpisah, mengembangkan model [[ikatan kimia]] yang menjelaskan eksperimen kiralitas Pasteur dan menyajikan penyebab fisik [[Rotasi optik|aktivitas optik]] pada senyawa khiral.<ref>{{cite web | title = Jacobus Henricus van't Hoff | work = Chemical Achievers: The Human Face of Chemical Sciences | publisher = Chemical Heritage Foundation | year = 2005 }}</ref>

;1876:[[Josiah Willard Gibbs]] menerbitkan ''[[On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances]]'', kompilasi karyanya tentang termodinamika dan [[kimia fisik]] yang menjelaskan konsep [[Energi bebas Gibbs|energi bebas]] untuk menjelaskan dasar fisika kesetimbangan kimia.<ref>{{cite web |last=O'Connor |first=J. J. |last2=Robertson |first2=E.F. |title=Josiah Willard Gibbs |work=MacTutor |publisher=School of Mathematics and Statistics University of St Andrews, Scotland |year=1997 |url=http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Biographies/Gibbs.html |accessdate=2007-03-24 |archive-date=2010-03-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100327095905/http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Biographies/Gibbs.html |dead-url=yes }}</ref>

;1877:[[Ludwig Boltzmann]] menetapkan derivasi statistik dari banyak konsep penting fisika dan kimia, termasuk [[entropi]], dan distribusi kecepatan molekul dalam fase gas.<ref>{{cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Boltzmann, Ludwig (1844–1906) |work=Eric Weisstein's World of Scientific Biography |publisher=Wolfram Research Products |year=1996 |url=http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/biography/Boltzmann.html |accessdate=2007-03-24 |archive-date=2006-04-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060407011302/http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/biography/Boltzmann.html |dead-url=no }}</ref>

;1883:[[Svante August Arrhenius|Svante Arrhenius]] mengembangkan teori [[ion]] untuk menjelaskan konduktivitas [[elektrolit]].<ref>{{cite web | title = Svante August Arrhenius | work = Chemical Achievers: The Human Face of Chemical Sciences | publisher = Chemical Heritage Foundation | year = 2005 }}</ref>

;1884
:* Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff mempublikasikan ''Études de Dynamique chimique'', suatu studi seminal tentang [[kinetika kimia]].<ref>{{cite web | title = Jacobus H. van 't Hoff: The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1901 | work = Nobel Lectures, Chemistry 1901–1921 | publisher = Elsevier Publishing Company | year = 1966 | url = http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1901/hoff-bio.html | accessdate = 2007-02-28 | archive-date = 2010-01-09 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100109112701/http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1901/hoff-bio.html | dead-url = no }}</ref>
:* [[Hermann Emil Fischer]] mengusulkan struktur [[purina]], sebuah struktur kunci dalam banyak biomolekul, yang kemudian disintesisnya pada tahun 1898. Juga mulai meneliti tentang kimia [[glukosa]] dan [[gula]] terkait.<ref>{{cite web | title = Emil Fischer: The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1902 | work = Nobel Lectures, Chemistry 1901–1921 | publisher = Elsevier Publishing Company | year = 1966 | url = http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1902/fischer-bio.html | accessdate = 2007-02-28 | archive-date = 2009-09-03 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090903164859/http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1902/fischer-bio.html | dead-url = no }}</ref>
:* [[Henry Louis Le Chatelier]] mengembangkan [[prinsip Le Chatelier]], yang menjelaskan respon dinamis [[kesetimbangan kimia]] terhadap tekanan eksternal.<ref>{{cite web | title = Henry Louis Le Châtelier | work = World of Scientific Discovery | publisher = Thomson Gale | year = 2005 | url = http://www.bookrags.com/biography/henry-louis-le-chatelier-wsd/ | accessdate = 2007-03-24 | archive-date = 2010-01-14 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100114182027/http://www.bookrags.com/biography/henry-louis-le-chatelier-wsd/ | dead-url = no }}</ref>

;1885:[[Eugene Goldstein]] menyebutkan [[sinar katode]], yang kemudian ditemukan terdiri dari elektron, dan [[Sinar anode|sinar kanal]], kemudian ditemukan sebagai ion hidrogen positif yang telah dilucuti dari elektron mereka dalam [[tabung sinar katode]]. Ini kemudian diberi nama [[proton]].<ref>{{cite web | title = History of Chemistry | work = Intensive General Chemistry | publisher = Columbia University Department of Chemistry Undergraduate Program | url = http://www.columbia.edu/itc/chemistry/chem-c2507/navbar/chemhist.html | accessdate = 2007-03-24 | archive-date = 2016-01-22 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160122145034/http://www.columbia.edu/itc/chemistry/chem-c2507/navbar/chemhist.html | dead-url = no }}</ref>

;1893:[[Alfred Werner]] menemukan struktur oktahedral kompleks kobalt, sehingga membentuk bidang ilmu [[kimia koordinasi]].<ref>{{cite web | title = Alfred Werner: The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1913 | work = Nobel Lectures, Chemistry 1901–1921 | publisher = Elsevier Publishing Company | year = 1966 | url = http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1913/werner-bio.html | accessdate = 2007-03-24 | archive-date = 2009-11-24 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20091124092430/http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1913/werner-bio.html | dead-url = no }}</ref>

;1894–1898: [[Sir William Ramsay|William Ramsay]] menemukan [[gas mulia]], yang mengisi celah besar dan tak terduga pada tabel periodik dan menghasilkan model ikatan kimia.<ref>{{cite web | title = William Ramsay: The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1904 | work = Nobel Lectures, Chemistry 1901–1921 | publisher = Elsevier Publishing Company | year = 1966 | url = http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1904/ramsay-bio.html | accessdate = 2007-03-20 | archive-date = 2010-01-07 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100107021622/http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1904/ramsay-bio.html | dead-url = no }}</ref>

;1897:[[Joseph John Thomson|J. J. Thomson]] menemukan [[elektron]] menggunakan [[tabung sinar katode]].<ref>{{cite web | title = Joseph John Thomson | work = Chemical Achievers: The Human Face of Chemical Sciences | publisher = Chemical Heritage Foundation | year = 2005 }}</ref>

;1898
:* [[Wilhelm Wien]] menunjukkan bahwa sinar kanal (aliran ion positif) dapat dibelokkan oleh medan magnet, dan jumlah defleksi sebanding dengan [[rasio massa terhadap muatan]]. Penemuan ini akan mengarah pada teknik [[Kimia analisis|analisis]] yang dikenal dengan [[spektrometri massa]].<ref>{{cite web | title = Alfred Werner: The Nobel Prize in Physics 1911 | work = Nobel Lectures, Physics 1901–1921 | publisher = Elsevier Publishing Company | year = 1967 | url = http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1911/wien-bio.html | accessdate = 2007-03-24 | archive-date = 2009-08-05 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090805194247/http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1911/wien-bio.html | dead-url = no }}</ref>
:* [[Maria Sklodowska-Curie]] dan [[Pierre Curie]] mengisolasi [[radium]] dan [[polonium]] dari [[pitchblende]].<ref>{{cite web | title = Marie Sklodowska Curie | work = Chemical Achievers: The Human Face of Chemical Sciences | publisher = Chemical Heritage Foundation |year=2005}}</ref>

;c. 1900: [[Ernest Rutherford]] menemukan sumber [[radioaktivitas]] sebagai peluruhan atom; istilah baru untuk berbagai jenis radiasi.<ref name=rutherford>{{cite web | title = Ernest Rutherford: The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1908 | work = Nobel Lectures, Chemistry 1901–1921 | publisher = Elsevier Publishing Company | year = 1966 | url = http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1908/rutherford-bio.html | accessdate = 2007-02-28 | archive-date = 2010-01-09 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100109135503/http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1908/rutherford-bio.html | dead-url = no }}</ref>

== Abad ke-20 ==
;1903:[[Mikhail Tsvet|Mikhail Semyonovich Tsvet]] menemukan [[kromatografi]], suatu teknik analisis penting.<ref>{{cite web | title = Tsvet, Mikhail (Semyonovich) | work = Compton's Desk Reference | publisher = Encyclopædia Britannica | year = 2007 | url = http://deskreference.britannica.com/ebc/print?tocId=9381267 | accessdate = 2007-03-24 | archive-date = 2012-06-30 | archive-url = https://archive.today/20120630161359/http://deskreference.britannica.com/ebc/print?tocId=9381267 | dead-url = yes }}</ref>

;1904:[[Hantaro Nagaoka]] mengusulkan [[Model Bohr|model nuklir]] atom awal, di mana elektron mengorbit inti atom masif.<ref name=physTL>{{cite web | title = Physics Time-Line 1900 to 1949 | publisher = Weburbia.com | url = http://www.weburbia.com/pg/hist3.htm | accessdate = 2007-03-25 | deadurl = yes | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20070430031506/http://www.weburbia.com/pg/hist3.htm | archivedate = 2007-04-30 | df =  }}</ref>

;1905
:* [[Fritz Haber]] dan [[Carl Bosch]] mengembangkan [[proses Haber]] untuk membuat [[amonia]] dari unsur-unsurnya, sebuah tonggak sejarah dalam kimia industri yang memiliki dampak besar dalam bidang pertanian.<ref>{{cite web | title = Fritz Haber | work = Chemical Achievers: The Human Face of Chemical Sciences | publisher = Chemical Heritage Foundation | year = 2005 }}</ref>
:* [[Albert Einstein]] menjelaskan [[gerak Brown]] dengan cara yang secara definitif membuktikan teori atom.<ref>{{cite web |last=Cassidy |first=David |title=Einstein on Brownian Motion |publisher=The Center for History of Physics |year=1996 |url=http://www.aip.org/history/einstein/essay-brownian.htm |accessdate=2007-03-25 |archive-date=2007-02-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070206051254/http://www.aip.org/history/einstein/essay-brownian.htm |dead-url=yes }}</ref>

;1907:[[Leo Hendrik Baekeland]] menciptakan [[bakelite]], salah satu plastik komersial pertama yang sukses.<ref>{{cite web | title = Leo Hendrik Baekeland | work = Chemical Achievers: The Human Face of Chemical Sciences | publisher = Chemical Heritage Foundation | year = 2005 }}</ref>

[[Berkas:Robert-millikan2.jpg|ka|jmpl|lurus|[[Robert Andrews Millikan|Robert A. Millikan]] melakukan percobaan tetes minyak.]]
;1909
:* [[Robert Andrews Millikan|Robert Millikan]] mengukur muatan elektron dengan akurasi yang belum pernah terjadi sebelumnya melalui [[Percobaan Millikan|eksperimen tetes minyak]], yang memastikan bahwa semua elektron memiliki muatan dan massa yang sama.<ref>{{cite web | title = Robert A. Millikan: The Nobel Prize in Physics 1923 | work = Nobel Lectures, Physics 1922–1941 | publisher = Elsevier Publishing Company | year = 1965 | url = http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1923/press.html | accessdate = 2007-07-17 | archive-date = 2012-06-08 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120608043621/http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1923/press.html | dead-url = no }}</ref>
:* [[S. P. L. Sørensen]] menciptakan konsep pH dan mengembangkan metode untuk mengukur keasaman.<ref>{{cite web | title = Søren Sørensen | work = Chemical Achievers: The Human Face of Chemical Sciences | publisher = Chemical Heritage Foundation | year = 2005 }}</ref>

;1911
:* [[Antonius van den Broek]] mengusulkan gagasan bahwa unsur pada tabel periodik lebih baik disusun berdasarkan muatan inti positif daripada berat atom.<ref>{{cite web |last=Parker |first=David |title=Nuclear Twins: The Discovery of the Proton and Neutron |work=Electron Centennial Page |url=http://www.davidparker.com/janine/twins.html |accessdate=2007-03-25 |archive-date=2018-01-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180122111143/http://www.davidparker.com/janine/twins.html |dead-url=yes }}</ref>
:* [[Konferensi Solvay]] pertama diadakan di [[Brussels]], mempertemukan sebagian besar ilmuwan paling terkemuka saat itu. Konferensi di bidang fisika dan kimia terus diadakan secara berkala sampai hari ini.<ref>{{cite web | title = Solvay Conference | publisher = Einstein Symposium | year = 2005 | url = http://www.bibalex.org/Einstein2005/About_Solvay.htm | accessdate = 2007-03-28 | archive-date = 2012-03-07 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120307171939/http://www.bibalex.org/Einstein2005/About_Solvay.htm | dead-url = no }}</ref>
:* Ernest Rutherford, [[Hans Geiger]], dan [[Ernest Marsden]] melakukan [[Eksperimen Geiger–Marsden|eksperimen foil emas]], yang membuktikan model nuklir atom, dengan nukleus positif kecil dan padat dikelilingi oleh [[awan elektron]] yang menyebar.<ref name=rutherford/>

;1912
:* [[William Henry Bragg]] dan [[William Lawrence Bragg]] mengusulkan [[hukum Bragg]] dan membangun bidang [[kristalografi sinar-X]], alat penting untuk mengelusidasi struktur kristal zat.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite web | title = The Nobel Prize in Physics 1915 | work = Nobelprize.org | publisher = The Nobel Foundation | url = http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1915/ | accessdate = 2007-02-28 | archive-date = 2012-05-13 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120513212534/http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1915/ | dead-url = no }}</ref>
:* [[Petrus Josephus Wilhelmus Debije|Peter Debye]] mengembangkan konsep [[Dipol|dipol molekul]] untuk menjelaskan distribusi muatan asimetris dalam beberapa molekul.<ref>{{cite web | title = Peter Debye: The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1936 | work = Nobel Lectures, Chemistry 1922–1941 | publisher = Elsevier Publishing Company | year = 1966 | url = http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1936/debye-bio.html | accessdate = 2007-02-28 | archive-date = 2007-05-18 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070518064418/http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1936/debye-bio.html | dead-url = no }}</ref>
[[Berkas:Bohr atom model.svg|jmpl|ka|180px|Model atom Bohr.]]
;1913
:* [[Niels Bohr]] memperkenalkan konsep [[mekanika kuantum]] pada struktur atom dengan mengusulkan apa yang sekarang dikenal sebagai [[Model Bohr|model atom Bohr]], di mana elektron hanya ada dalam [[Orbital atom|orbital]] yang didefinisikan secara ketat.<ref>{{cite web | title = Niels Bohr: The Nobel Prize in Physics 1922 | work = Nobel Lectures, Chemistry 1922–1941 | publisher = Elsevier Publishing Company | year = 1966 | url = http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1922/bohr-bio.html | accessdate = 2007-03-25 | archive-date = 2010-01-09 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100109133711/http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1922/bohr-bio.html | dead-url = no }}</ref>
:* [[Henry Moseley]], yang bekerja dari gagasan Van den Broek sebelumnya, memperkenalkan konsep [[nomor atom]] untuk memperbaiki kekurangan tabel periodik Mendeleev, yang didasarkan pada berat atom.<ref>{{cite web |last=Weisstein |first=Eric W. |title=Moseley, Henry (1887–1915) |work=Eric Weisstein's World of Scientific Biography |publisher=Wolfram Research Products |year=1996 |url=http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/biography/Moseley.html |accessdate=2007-03-25 |archive-date=2015-03-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150314182610/http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/access-error/agent-denied.html |dead-url=no }}</ref>
:* [[Frederick Soddy]] mengusulkan konsep [[isotop]], unsur yang memiliki sifat kimia yang sama mungkin memiliki bobot atom yang berbeda.<ref>{{cite web | title = Frederick Soddy The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1921 | work = Nobel Lectures, Chemistry 1901–1921 | publisher = Elsevier Publishing Company | year = 1966 | url = http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1921/soddy-bio.html | accessdate = 2007-03-25 | archive-date = 2017-06-13 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170613021120/http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1921/soddy-bio.html | dead-url = no }}</ref>
:* [[Joseph John Thomson|J. J. Thomson]] yang mengembangkan karya Wien, menunjukkan bahwa partikel subatomik bermuatan dapat dipisahkan berdasarkan rasio massa terhadap muatan mereka, sebuah teknik yang dikenal sebagai [[spektrometri massa]].<ref>{{cite web | title = Early Mass Spectrometry | work = A History of Mass Spectrometry | publisher = Scripps Center for Mass Spectrometry | year = 2005 | url = http://masspec.scripps.edu/MSHistory/timelines/1897.php | accessdate = 2007-03-26 |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20070303134854/http://masspec.scripps.edu/MSHistory/timelines/1897.php <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archivedate = 2007-03-03}}</ref>

;1916:[[Gilbert N. Lewis]] mempublikasikan "Atom dan Molekul" ("''The Atom and the Molecule''"), dasar [[teori ikatan valensi]].<ref name=lewis>{{cite web | title = Gilbert Newton Lewis and Irving Langmuir | work = Chemical Achievers: The Human Face of Chemical Sciences | publisher = Chemical Heritage Foundation | year = 2005 }}</ref>

;1921:[[Otto Stern]] dan [[Walther Gerlach]] menetapkan konsep [[Spin (fisika)|spin mekanis kuantum]] dalam partikel subatomik.<ref>{{cite web | title = Electron Spin | url = http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/spin.html | accessdate = 2007-03-26 | archive-date = 2017-12-24 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20171224111002/http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/spin.html | dead-url = no }}</ref>

;1923
:* Gilbert N. Lewis dan [[Merle Randall]] mempublikasikan "Termodinamika dan Energi Bebas Zat Kimia" ("''Thermodynamics and the Free Energy of Chemical Substances''"), risalah modern pertama tentang [[termodinamika kimia]].<ref>{{cite web |last=LeMaster |first=Nancy |last2=McGann |first2=Diane |title=GILBERT NEWTON LEWIS: AMERICAN CHEMIST (1875–1946) |work=Woodrow Wilson Leadership Program in Chemistry |publisher=The Woodrow Wilson National Fellowship Foundation |year=1992 |url=http://www.woodrow.org/teachers/ci/1992/Lewis.html |accessdate=2007-03-25 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070401163425/http://www.woodrow.org/teachers/ci/1992/Lewis.html |archivedate=2007-04-01 |df= }}</ref>
:* Gilbert N. Lewis mengembangkan teori pasangan elektron dari reaksi [[asam]]/[[basa]].<ref name=lewis/>

;1924:[[Louis-Victor Pierre Raymond de Broglie|Louis de Broglie]] memperkenalkan model gelombang struktur atom, berdasarkan gagasan [[dualitas gelombang-partikel]].<ref>{{cite web | title = Louis de Broglie: The Nobel Prize in Physics 1929 | work = Nobel Lectures, Physics 1922–1941 | publisher = Elsevier Publishing Company | year = 1965 | url = http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1929/broglie-bio.html | accessdate = 2007-02-28 | archive-date = 2011-12-29 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20111229152614/http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1929/broglie-bio.html | dead-url = no }}</ref>

;1925:[[Wolfgang Pauli]] mengembangkan [[Asas larangan Pauli|prinsip pengecualian]], yang menyatakan bahwa tidak ada dua elektron yang mengelilingi satu inti dengan keadaan kuantum yang sama, seperti yang dijelaskan oleh empat [[bilangan kuantum]].<ref>{{cite web | title = Wolfgang Pauli: The Nobel Prize in Physics 1945 | work = Nobel Lectures, Physics 1942–1962 | publisher = Elsevier Publishing Company | year = 1964 | url = http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1945/pauli-bio.html | accessdate = 2007-02-28 | archive-date = 2012-02-03 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120203161438/http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1945/pauli-bio.html | dead-url = no }}</ref>

{{infobox
| title = 
| data1 = <math>\hat{H} | \psi (t) \rangle = i \hbar \frac{\partial}{\partial t} | \psi (t) \rangle </math>
| data2 = [[Persamaan Schrödinger]]
}}
;1926:[[Erwin Schrödinger]] mengusulkan [[persamaan Schrödinger]], yang memberikan dasar matematika untuk model gelombang struktur atom.<ref>{{cite web | title = Erwin Schrödinger: The Nobel Prize in Physics 1933 | work = Nobel Lectures, Physics 1922–1941 | publisher = Elsevier Publishing Company | year = 1965 | url = http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1933/schrodinger-bio.html | accessdate = 2007-02-28 | archive-date = 2011-08-05 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110805060604/http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1933/schrodinger-bio.html | dead-url = no }}</ref>

;1927
:* [[Werner Heisenberg]] mengembangkan [[Prinsip ketidakpastian Heisenberg|prinsip ketidakpastian]] yang, antara lain, menjelaskan mekanisme gerak elektron di sekitar nukleus.<ref>{{cite web | title = Werner Heisenberg: The Nobel Prize in Physics 1932 | work = Nobel Lectures, Physics 1922–1941 | publisher = Elsevier Publishing Company | year = 1965 | url = http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1932/heisenberg-bio.html | accessdate = 2007-02-28 | archive-date = 2011-08-07 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110807183130/http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1932/heisenberg-bio.html | dead-url = no }}</ref>
:* [[Fritz London]] dan [[Walter Heitler]] menerapkan mekanika kuantum untuk menjelaskan ikatan kovalen dalam molekul hidrogen,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Heitler |first1=Walter |last2=London |first2=Fritz |year=1927 |title=Wechselwirkung neutraler Atome und homöopolare Bindung nach der Quantenmechanik |url= |journal=Zeitschrift für Physik |volume=44 |issue= |pages=455–472 |bibcode=1927ZPhy...44..455H |doi=10.1007/BF01397394 }}</ref> yang menandai kelahiran [[kimia kuantum]].<ref>Ivor Grattan-Guinness. ''Companion Encyclopedia of the History and Philosophy of the Mathematical Sciences''. Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003, p. 1266.; [[Jagdish Mehra]], Helmut Rechenberg. ''The Historical Development of Quantum Theory''. Springer, 2001, p. 540.</ref>

;1929:[[Linus Carl Pauling|Linus Pauling]] menerbitkan [[aturan Pauling]], yang merupakan prinsip kunci dalam penggunaan [[kristalografi sinar-X]] untuk menentukan struktur molekul.<ref name=pauling>{{cite web|title=Linus Pauling: The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1954|work=Nobel Lectures, Chemistry 1942–1962|publisher=Elsevier|year=1964|url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1954/pauling-bio.html|accessdate=2007-02-28|archive-date=2012-04-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120430100826/http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1954/pauling-bio.html|dead-url=no}}</ref>

;1931
:* [[Erich Hückel]] mengusulkan [[aturan Hückel]], yang menjelaskan saat molekul cincin planar akan memiliki sifat [[Aromatisitas|aromatik]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Rzepa |first=Henry S. |title=The aromaticity of Pericyclic reaction transition states |publisher=Department of Chemistry, Imperial College London |url=http://www.ch.ic.ac.uk/rzepa/pericyclic/ |accessdate=2007-03-26 |archive-date=2012-04-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120414023117/http://www.ch.ic.ac.uk/rzepa/pericyclic/ |dead-url=no }}</ref>
:* [[Harold Clayton Urey|Harold Urey]] menemukan [[deuterium]] dengan [[distilasi fraksional]] hidrogen cair.<ref>{{cite web | title = Harold C. Urey: The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1934 | work = Nobel Lectures, Chemistry 1922–1941 | publisher = Elsevier Publishing Company | year = 1965 | url = http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1934/urey-bio.html | accessdate = 2007-03-26 | archive-date = 2008-12-31 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20081231070502/http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1934/urey-bio.html | dead-url = no }}</ref>
[[Berkas:Nylon6 and Nylon 66.png|jmpl|ka|180px|Model umum dua bentuk nilon]]
;1932:[[James Chadwick]] menemukan [[neutron]].<ref>{{cite web | title = James Chadwick: The Nobel Prize in Physics 1935 | work = Nobel Lectures, Physics 1922–1941 | publisher = Elsevier Publishing Company | year = 1965 | url = http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1935/chadwick-bio.html | accessdate = 2007-02-28 | archive-date = 2010-01-28 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100128125200/http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1935/chadwick-bio.html | dead-url = no }}</ref>

;1932–1934:Linus Pauling dan [[Robert Sanderson Mulliken|Robert Mulliken]] mengukur [[elektronegativitas]], merancang skala yang sekarang memakai nama mereka.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Jensen |first=William B. |doi=10.1021/ed080p279 |title=Electronegativity from Avogadro to Pauling: II. Late Nineteenth- and Early Twentieth-Century Developments |journal=Journal of Chemical Education |year=2003 |volume=80 |issue=3 |page=279 |bibcode=2003JChEd..80..279J }}</ref>

;1935:[[Wallace Carothers]] memimpin sebuah tim ahli kimia di [[DuPont]] yang menciptakan [[nilon]], salah satu polimer sintetis yang paling sukses secara komersial dalam sejarah.<ref>{{cite web|title=Wallace Hume Carothers|work=Chemical Achievers: The Human Face of Chemical Sciences|publisher=Chemical Heritage Foundation|year=2005}}</ref>

;1937
:* [[Carlo Perrier]] dan [[Emilio Segrè]] melakukan sintesis [[Teknesium|technetium-97]] yang pertama dikonfirmasi, unsur buatan yang pertama diproduksi, mengisi celah di tabel periodik. Meski menuai perdebatan, unsur tersebut mungkin telah disintesis sejak 1925 oleh [[Walter Noddack]] dan lainnya.<ref>{{cite web | title = Emilio Segrè: The Nobel Prize in Physics 1959 | work = Nobel Lectures, Physics 1942–1962 | publisher = Elsevier Publishing Company | year = 1965 | url = http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1959/segre-bio.html | accessdate = 2007-02-28 | archive-date = 2012-04-20 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120420233021/http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1959/segre-bio.html | dead-url = no }}</ref>
:* [[Eugene Houdry]] mengembangkan metode perengkahan katalitik minyak bumi berskala industri, yang memicu pengembangan kilang minyak modern pertama.<ref>{{cite web | title = Eugene Houdry | work = Chemical Achievers: The Human Face of Chemical Sciences | publisher = Chemical Heritage Foundation | year = 2005 }}</ref>
:* [[Pyotr Kapitsa]], [[John F. Allen|John Allen]] dan [[Don Misener]] membuat [[helium|helium-4]] superdingin, [[superfluida]] berviskositas nol pertama, zat yang menampilkan sifat mekanika kuantum pada skala makroskopik.<ref>{{cite web | title = Pyotr Kapitsa: The Nobel Prize in Physics 1978 | work = Les Prix Nobel, The Nobel Prizes 1991 | publisher = Nobel Foundation | year = 1979 | url = http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1978/kapitsa-bio.html | accessdate = 2007-03-26 | archive-date = 2017-12-29 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20171229231450/https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1978/kapitsa-bio.html | dead-url = no }}</ref>

;1938:[[Otto Hahn]] menemukan proses [[fisi nuklir]] dalam [[uranium]] dan [[torium]].<ref>{{cite web | title = Otto Hahn: The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1944 | work = Nobel Lectures, Chemistry 1942–1962 | publisher = Elsevier Publishing Company | year = 1964 | url = http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1944/hahn-bio.html | accessdate = 2007-04-07 | archive-date = 2010-06-20 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100620161434/http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1944/hahn-bio.html | dead-url = no }}</ref>

;1939:Linus Pauling mempublikasikan ''The Nature of the Chemical Bond'', sebuah kompilasi dari beberapa dekade meneliti [[ikatan kimia]]. Ini adalah salah satu naskah kimia modern yang paling penting. Naskah ini menjelaskan [[hibridisasi orbital|teori hibridisasi]], [[ikatan kovalen]] dan [[ikatan ionik]] seperti yang dijelaskan melalui elektronegativitas, dan [[resonansi (kimia)|resonansi]] sebagai sarana untuk menjelaskan, antara lain, struktur [[benzena]].<ref name=pauling/>

;1940:[[Edwin McMillan]] dan [[Philip H. Abelson]] mengidentifikasi [[neptunium]], [[unsur transuranium]] yang paling ringan dan pertama disintesis, ditemukan pada produk [[Fisi nuklir|fisi]] uranium. McMillan mendirikan sebuah laboratorium di [[University of California, Berkeley|Berkeley]] yang akan terlibat dalam penemuan banyak unsur dan isotop baru.<ref name=seaborg>{{cite web | title = Glenn Theodore Seaborg | work = Chemical Achievers: The Human Face of Chemical Sciences | publisher = Chemical Heritage Foundation | year = 2005 }}</ref>

;1941:[[Glenn T. Seaborg]] mengambil alih pekerjaan McMillan yang menciptakan inti atom baru. Perintis metode [[penangkapan neutron]] dan kemudian melalui [[reaksi nuklir]] lainnya. Kelak ia menjadi penemu utama atau penemu pendamping dari sembilan unsur kimia baru, dan puluhan isotop baru dari unsur yang ada.<ref name=seaborg/>

;1945:[[Jacob A. Marinsky]], [[Lawrence E. Glendenin]], dan [[Charles D. Coryell]] melakukan sintesis pertama [[Promethium]] yang dikonfirmasi, mengisi "celah" terakhir dalam tabel periodik.<ref name=histofelem>{{cite web | title = History of the Elements of the Periodic Table | publisher = AUS-e-TUTE | url = http://www.ausetute.com.au/elemhist.html | accessdate = 2007-03-26 | archive-date = 2010-09-18 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100918010009/http://www.ausetute.com.au/elemhist.html | dead-url = no }}</ref>

;1945–1946:[[Felix Bloch]] dan [[Edward Mills Purcell]] mengembangkan proses [[resonansi magnet inti]], teknik [[kimia analitik|analisis]] penting dalam mengelusidasi struktur molekul, terutama dalam [[kimia organik]].<ref>{{cite web | title = The Nobel Prize in Physics 1952 | work = Nobelprize.org | publisher = The Nobel Foundation | url = http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1952/ | accessdate = 2007-02-28 | archive-date = 2012-07-18 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120718043606/http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1952/ | dead-url = no }}</ref>

;1951:Linus Pauling menggunakan kristalografi sinar-X untuk menyimpulkan [[Struktur biomolekul|struktur sekunder]] protein.<ref name=pauling/>

;1952
:* [[Alan Walsh]] mempelopori bidang [[spektroskopi serapan atom]], metode spektroskopi [[kuantitas|kuantitatif]] penting yang memungkinkan seseorang mengukur konsentrasi materi tertentu dalam campuran.<ref>{{cite web |last=Hannaford |first=Peter |title=Alan Walsh 1916–1998 |work=AAS Biographical Memoirs |publisher=Australian Academy of Science |url=http://www.science.org.au/academy/memoirs/walsh2.htm |accessdate=2007-03-26 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070224214248/http://www.science.org.au/academy/memoirs/walsh2.htm <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archivedate=2007-02-24}}</ref>
:* [[Robert Burns Woodward]], [[Geoffrey Wilkinson]], and [[Ernst Otto Fischer]] menemukan struktur {{ill|ferosena|en|ferrocene}}, salah satu penemuan yang mendasari berdirinya bidang [[kimia organologam]].<ref name=woodward>{{cite journal |last=Cornforth |first=Lord Todd, John |title=Robert Burns Woodward. 10 April 1917-8 July 1979 |journal=Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society |volume=27 |issue=Nov., 1981 |pages=628–695 |publisher=JSTOR |jstor=198111 |date=November 1981 |doi=10.1098/rsbm.1981.0025 |last2=Cornforth |first2=J. |last3=T. |first3=A. R. |last4=C. |first4=J. W.}} ''note: authorization required for web access.''</ref>

;1953:[[James D. Watson]] and [[Francis Crick]] mengusulkan struktur [[DNA]], membuka pintu menuju bidang [[biologi molekular]].<ref>{{cite web | title = The Nobel Prize in Medicine 1962 | work = Nobelprize.org | publisher = The Nobel Foundation | url = http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1962/ | accessdate = 2007-02-28 | archive-date = 2007-01-04 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070104183337/http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1962/ | dead-url = no }}</ref>

;1957: [[Jens Skou]] menemukan [[Na+/K+-ATPase|Na{{sup|+}}/K{{sup|+}}-ATPase]], enzim pengangkut ion pertama.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Skou |first=Jens  |title=The influence of some cations on an adenosine triphosphatase from peripheral nerves. |journal=Biochim Biophys Acta |volume=23 |issue=2 |pages=394–401 |year=1957 |pmid=13412736 |doi=10.1016/0006-3002(57)90343-8}}</ref>

;1958:[[Max Perutz]] dan [[John Kendrew]] menggunakan kristalografi sinar-X untuk mengelusidasi struktur [[protein]], khususnya [[myoglobin]] [[paus kepala kotak]].<ref>{{cite web | title = The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1962 | work = Nobelprize.org | publisher = The Nobel Foundation | url = http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1962/ | accessdate = 2007-02-28 | archive-date = 2012-10-12 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20121012042159/http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1962/ | dead-url = no }}</ref>

;1962:[[Neil Bartlett (ilmuwan)|Neil Bartlett]] mensintesis [[xenon heksafluoroplatinat]], menunjukkan untuk pertama kalinya bahwa gas mulia dapat membentuk senyawa kimia.<ref name="Neil Bartlett and the Reactive Noble Gases">{{cite web|title=Neil Bartlett and the Reactive Noble Gases|url=http://portal.acs.org/portal/PublicWebSite/education/whatischemistry/landmarks/bartlettnoblegases/index.htm|publisher=[[American Chemical Society]]|accessdate=June 5, 2012|archive-date=2013-01-12|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130112091550/http://portal.acs.org/portal/PublicWebSite/education/whatischemistry/landmarks/bartlettnoblegases/index.htm|dead-url=no}}</ref>

;1962:[[George Olah]] mengamati [[karbokation]] melalui reaksi [[superasam]].<ref>G. A. Olah, S. J. Kuhn, W. S. Tolgyesi, E. B. Baker, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1962, 84, 2733</ref><ref>G. A. Olah, lieu. Chim. (Bucharest), 1962, 7, 1139 (Nenitzescu issue)</ref><ref>G. A. Olah, W. S. Tolgyesi, S. J. Kuhn, M. E. Moffatt, I. J. Bastien, E. B. Baker, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1963, 85, 1328.</ref>

;1964:[[Richard R. Ernst]] melakukan eksperimen yang kelak mengarah pada pengembangan teknik NMR [[transformasi Fourier]]. Ini sangat meningkatkan sensitivitas teknik, dan membuka pintu untuk [[magnetic resonance imaging]] atau MRI.<ref>{{cite web | title = Richard R. Ernst The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1991 | work = Les Prix Nobel, The Nobel Prizes 1991 | publisher = Nobel Foundation | year = 1992 | url = http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1991/ernst-autobio.html | accessdate = 2007-03-27 | archive-date = 2012-02-13 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120213154718/http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1991/ernst-autobio.html | dead-url = no }}</ref>

;1965:Robert Burns Woodward dan [[Roald Hoffmann]] mengusulkan [[aturan Woodward–Hoffmann]], yang menggunakan simetri [[orbital molekul]] untuk menjelaskan stereokimia reaksi kimia.<ref name=woodward/>

;1966:[[Hitoshi Nozaki]] and [[Ryōji Noyori]] menemukan contoh pertama [[katalisis asimetris]] ([[hidrogenasi]]) menggunakan kompleks [[khiral]] [[logam transisi]] yang didefinisikan dengan baik.<ref>H. Nozaki, S. Moriuti, H. Takaya, R. Noyori, Tetrahedron Lett. 1966, 5239;</ref><ref>H.
Nozaki, H. Takaya, S. Moriuti, R. Noyori, Tetrahedron 1968, 24, 3655.</ref>

;1970:[[John Pople]] mengembangkan program [[GAUSSIAN|Gaussian]] yang sangat mempermudah kalkulasi [[kimia komputasi]].<ref>W. J. Hehre, W. A. Lathan, R. Ditchfield, M. D. Newton, and J. A. Pople, Gaussian 70 (Quantum Chemistry Program Exchange, Program No. 237, 1970).</ref>

;1971:[[Yves Chauvin]] menawarkan penjelasan tentang mekanisme reaksi [[metatesis olefin]].<ref>''Catalyse de transformation des oléfines par les complexes du tungstène. II. Télomérisation des oléfines cycliques en présence d'oléfines acycliques'' Die Makromolekulare Chemie Volume 141, Issue 1, Date: 9 February '''1971''', Pages: 161–176 Par Jean-Louis Hérisson, Yves Chauvin {{DOI|10.1002/macp.1971.021410112}}</ref>

;1975:[[Karl Barry Sharpless]] dan timnya menemukan reaksi [[oksidasi]] stereoselektif termasuk [[epoksidasi Sharpless]],<ref>Katsuki, T.; [[K. Barry Sharpless|Sharpless, K. B.]] ''[[J. Am. Chem. Soc.]]'' '''1980''', ''102'', 5974. ({{DOI|10.1021/ja00538a077}})</ref><ref>Hill, J. G.; [[K. Barry Sharpless|Sharpless, K. B.]]; Exon, C. M.; Regenye, R. ''[[Org. Syn.]]'', Coll. Vol. 7, p.461 (1990); Vol. 63, p.66 (1985). ([http://www.orgsyn.org/orgsyn/prep.asp?prep=cv7p0461 Article] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927003645/http://www.orgsyn.org/orgsyn/prep.asp?prep=cv7p0461 |date=2013-09-27 }})</ref> [[dihidroksilasi asimetris Sharpless]],<ref>Jacobsen, E. N.; Marko, I.; Mungall, W. S.; Schroeder, G.; [[K. Barry Sharpless|Sharpless, K. B.]] ''[[J. Am. Chem. Soc.]]'' '''1988''', ''110'', 1968. ({{DOI|10.1021/ja00214a053}})</ref><ref>Kolb, H. C.; Van Nieuwenhze, M. S.; [[K. Barry Sharpless|Sharpless, K. B.]] ''[[Chem. Rev.]]'' '''1994''', ''94'', 2483–2547. (Review) ({{DOI|10.1021/cr00032a009}})</ref><ref>Gonzalez, J.; Aurigemma, C.; Truesdale, L. ''[[Org. Syn.]]'', Coll. Vol. 10, p.603 (2004); Vol. 79, p.93 (2002). ([http://www.orgsyn.org/orgsyn/prep.asp?prep=v79p0093 Article] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100824222105/http://www.orgsyn.org/orgsyn/prep.asp?prep=v79p0093 |date=2010-08-24 }})</ref> dan [[oksiaminasi Sharpless]].<ref>[[K. Barry Sharpless|Sharpless, K. B.]]; Patrick, D. W.; Truesdale, L. K.; Biller, S. A. ''[[J. Am. Chem. Soc.]]'' '''1975''', ''97'', 2305. ({{DOI|10.1021/ja00841a071}})</ref><ref>Herranz, E.; Biller, S. A.; [[K. Barry Sharpless|Sharpless, K. B.]] ''[[J. Am. Chem. Soc.]]'' '''1978''', ''100'', 3596–3598. ({{DOI|10.1021/ja00479a051}})</ref><ref>Herranz, E.; [[K. Barry Sharpless|Sharpless, K. B.]] ''[[Org. Syn.]]'', Coll. Vol. 7, p.375 (1990); Vol. 61, p.85 (1983). ([http://www.orgsyn.org/orgsyn/prep.asp?prep=cv7p0375 Article] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121020174449/http://www.orgsyn.org/orgsyn/prep.asp?prep=cv7p0375 |date=2012-10-20 }})</ref>
[[Berkas:C60a.png|jmpl|ka|lurus|Bukminsterfulerena, C<sub>60</sub>]]
;1985:[[Harold Kroto]], [[Robert Curl]] dan [[Richard Smalley]] menemukan [[fulerena]], sebuah kelas molekul karbon besar yang menyerupai [[kubah geodesi]] yang dirancang oleh arsitek [[Buckminster Fuller|R. Buckminster Fuller]].<ref>{{cite web | title = The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1996 | work = Nobelprize.org | publisher = The Nobel Foundation | url = http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1996/ | accessdate = 2007-02-28 | archive-date = 2012-10-19 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20121019081035/http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1996/ | dead-url = no }}</ref>

;1991:[[Sumio Iijima]] menggunakan [[mikroskop elektron]] untuk menemukan jenis fulerena silinder yang dikenal sebagai [[tabung nano karbon]], meski karya sebelumnya telah dilakukan di bidang ini pada awal tahun 1951. Bahan ini merupakan komponen penting dalam bidang [[nanoteknologi]].<ref>{{cite web | title = Benjamin Franklin Medal awarded to Dr. Sumio Iijima, Director of the Research Center for Advanced Carbon Materials, AIST | publisher = National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology | year = 2002 | url = http://www.aist.go.jp/aist_e/topics/20020129/20020129.html | accessdate = 2007-03-27 | deadurl = yes | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20070404214121/http://www.aist.go.jp/aist_e/topics/20020129/20020129.html | archivedate = 2007-04-04 | df =  }}</ref>

;1994:[[Sintesis total Holton Taxol|Sintesis total pertama Taxol]] oleh [[Robert A. Holton]] dan timnya.<ref>''First total synthesis of taxol 1.'' Functionalization of the B ring Robert A. Holton, Carmen Somoza, Hyeong Baik Kim, Feng Liang, Ronald J. Biediger, P. Douglas Boatman, Mitsuru Shindo, Chase C. Smith, Soekchan Kim, et al.; [[J. Am. Chem. Soc.]]; '''1994'''; 116(4); 1597–1598. [http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/ja00083a066 DOI Abstract] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191128203557/https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/ja00083a066 |date=2019-11-28 }}</ref><ref>''First total synthesis of taxol. 2.'' Completion of the C and D rings Robert A. Holton, Hyeong Baik Kim, Carmen Somoza, Feng Liang, Ronald J. Biediger, P. Douglas Boatman, Mitsuru Shindo, Chase C. Smith, Soekchan Kim, and et al. [[J. Am. Chem. Soc.]]; '''1994'''; 116(4) pp 1599–1600 [http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/ja00083a067 DOI Abstract] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191217023448/https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/ja00083a067 |date=2019-12-17 }}</ref><ref>''A synthesis of taxusin'' Robert A. Holton, R. R. Juo, Hyeong B. Kim, Andrew D. Williams, Shinya Harusawa, Richard E. Lowenthal, Sadamu Yogai [[J. Am. Chem. Soc.]]; '''1988'''; 110(19); 6558–6560. [http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/ja00227a043 Abstract] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190830021929/https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/ja00227a043 |date=2019-08-30 }}</ref>

;1995:[[Eric Cornell]] dan [[Carl Wieman]] menghasilkan [[kondensat Bose–Einstein]] pertama, zat yang menampilkan sifat mekanika kuantum pada skala makroskopik.<ref>{{cite web|title=Cornell and Wieman Share 2001 Nobel Prize in Physics |work=NIST News Release |publisher=National Institute of Standards and Technology |year=2001 |url=https://www.nist.gov/public_affairs/releases/n01-04.htm |accessdate=2007-03-27 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070610080506/https://www.nist.gov/public_affairs/releases/n01-04.htm |archivedate=2007-06-10 |df= }}</ref>

== Lihat juga ==

* [[Sejarah kimia]]
* [[Nobel kimia]]
* [[Daftar penerima Nobel Kimia]]
* [[Penemuan unsur kimia]]

== Referensi ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== Bacaan lebih lanjut ==
* [[John Servos|Servos, John W.]], [https://books.google.com/books?id=1UZjU2WfLAoC&printsec=frontcover ''Physical chemistry from Ostwald to Pauling: the making of a science in America''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230729002026/https://books.google.com/books?id=1UZjU2WfLAoC&printsec=frontcover |date=2023-07-29 }}, Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1990. {{ISBN|0-691-08566-8}}

== Pranala luar ==
* [http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/biography/ Eric Weisstein's World of Scientific Biography] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110406102756/http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/biography/ |date=2011-04-06 }}
* [http://mattson.creighton.edu/HistoryGasChemistry.html History of Gas Chemistry] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090927120120/http://mattson.creighton.edu/HistoryGasChemistry.html |date=2009-09-27 }}
* [http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/lists/all/ list of all Nobel Prize laureates] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160605101827/http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/lists/all/ |date=2016-06-05 }}
* [http://www.ausetute.com.au/elemhist.html History of Elements of the Periodic Table] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100918010009/http://www.ausetute.com.au/elemhist.html |date=2010-09-18 }}

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